Teaching Methodology
Subtopic:
TEACHING– LEARNING PROCESS
Objectives
Teaching and Learning
Justification of Teaching Methodology
Elements of the Teaching-Learning Process
Phases of the Teaching Process
Tasks of the Teacher
Phases of Learning
Factors Influencing Learning
Ways Teachers Can Help Students Learn
Principles of Teaching and Learning
Qualities/Characteristics of Good Teaching
Definitions
● Teaching Methodology: A study of different methods used in the teaching-learning process. (As long as teaching is taking place, learning also must take place.)
● Teaching: Refers to the process of sharing knowledge and skills from a teacher to a learner.
● Method: An approach or way in which teaching is conducted.
● -ology: Means study.
● Education: A process through which an individual attains knowledge, skills, attitudes, and other abilities required for leading a productive life in society.
● Learning: The process of acquiring new knowledge, skills, and attitudes which enable an individual to do something that they could not do before; OR a change in an individual’s behavior as a result of receiving instructions.
● Training: A practical aspect of learning which involves learning a new skill or improving one’s knowledge, typically within a job environment.
● Mentoring: A form of social learning where someone with more experience (a mentor) helps guide the learning and growth of someone with less experience (a mentee).
Justification/Relevance of Teaching Methodology for Nurses
(Why you need to study Teaching Methodology as a Nurse)
Studying teaching methodology is essential for nurses for the following reasons:
Empowers Clinical Teaching: It empowers qualified nurses to provide effective teaching for student nurses during ward placements. By using methods like demonstration, nurses can effectively show and guide students in performing skills, enhancing the learning process and empowering the qualified nurse as an educator.
Enhances CPD and Clinical Teaching: Teaching methodology is vital for continuous professional development (CPD) among qualified nurses, as used in workshops and training sessions. It’s also crucial for clinical teaching, enabling nurses to select appropriate teaching methods tailored to individual patients’ learning styles and needs when educating them about their care.
Facilitates Patient Health Education: Provides nurses with the skills needed to effectively provide health education to patients, whether individually or in groups. It helps nurses select and use engaging and informative methods suitable for the audience and topic.
Builds Confidence for Public Health Education: Provides nurses with the knowledge and confidence to deliver health education to the public, often through media channels like radio and television, by enabling them to explain complex concepts clearly and engagingly.
Prepares for Educator Roles: Teaching methodology is essential for nurses who aspire to become medical educators, tutors, or trainers. It provides the understanding needed to plan, design, implement, review, and evaluate nursing curricula, and to effectively use various teaching methods and assessment strategies.
Encourages Use of Educational Technology: It helps nurses appreciate and effectively utilize advanced educational technology, such as the internet and online media, for teaching both student nurses and patients.
Develops Systematic Planning Skills: It is necessary to enable nurses to become systematic in writing educational plans, including long-term schemes of work and detailed lesson plans, ensuring they are effective and engaging.
Teaches Core Educational Skills: Nurses learn how to identify, select, and apply various teaching methods and teaching aids. A fundamental skill acquired is the ability to write clear and measurable learning objectives.
Guides Content Development: It teaches nurses how to write educational notes that are guided by specific objectives, ensuring the content is clear, concise, and focused on the most important information for learners (students or patients).
Once upon a time, there was a nurse named Sarah. She was a great nurse. One day, Nurse Sarah was teaching a new nurse (Joyce) how to give a bed bath.
“First,” said Sarah, “you need to get the patient’s consent. You can say something like, ‘Hi, I’m Sarah, your nurse. I’m here to give you a bed bath. Is that okay with you?'”
“Yes”, Said Joyce.
“Good,” said Sarah. “Now, you need to gather your equipment. You’ll need a washbasin, soap, water, and towels on a trolley.” (Other requirements)
Joyce gathered the supplies and placed them on a bedside table.
“Okay,” said Sarah. “Now, we’re ready to start. First, you need to wash your hands.”
Joyce washed her hands.
“Good,” said Sarah. “Now, you need to drape the patient with a towel. This will keep them from getting wet and cold and will maintain privacy.”
Joyce draped the patient with a towel.
“Okay,” said Sarah. “Now, you can start washing the patient’s face. Be sure to be gentle.”
Joyce started washing the patient’s face.
“Good,” said Sarah. “Now, you can wash the patient’s arms, legs, and chest. Be sure to wash all of the skin folds and keep each inch dried.”
Joyce washed the patient’s arms, legs, and chest then dried the patient too.
“Okay,” said Sarah. “Now, you can wash the patient’s back. This is a little more difficult, so be sure to be careful .” They worked together to turn the patient.
Joyce started washing the patient’s back.
“Oh, be careful!” said the patient. “You’re tickling me!”
The new nurse and Sarah started to laugh.
“Don’t worry,” said Sarah. “I’m sure she’s just kidding.”
Joyce finished washing the patient’s back and dried them off. Then they applied vaseline together.
“Okay,” said Sarah. “That’s it! You’ve just given your first bed bath.” I have a question for you, “Why did we start from the face, not the feet?” Joyce answered correctly.
Joyce smiled. “Thanks for your help, Sarah,” she said. “I’m glad I could learn from the best.”
This story illustrates the teaching-learning process in a number of ways:
● Sarah assessedJoyce’s learning needs by asking her if she knew how to give a bed bath.
● She established specific learning objectives by telling Joyce what she was going to learn in the lesson.
● She developed teaching and learning strategies by demonstrating how to give a bed bath and by
providing Joyce with feedback.
● She implemented a plan of work by guiding Joyce through the process of giving a bed bath.
● She evaluated the outcome of the instruction by asking Joyce questions at the end of the lesson to
see if she had learned how to give a bed bath.
Teaching Process (Phases)
The teaching process involves distinct phases:
Planning for teaching:
Mind about the nature or level of the learners (Whom am I going to teach?)
Prepare teaching objectives (What am I going to teach?)
Prepare the teaching method(s) (What appropriate strategy or strategies am I going to use in teaching?)
Prepare the teacher’s and learners’ tasks (What will I do to involve my learners in their learning?)
Prepare teaching aids/materials (What do I need to teach/what tools or equipment will I use in teaching?)
Prepare the assessment and evaluation methods (How will I know that my learners have achieved the level of ability or competence I want?)
Research and review the content meant for teaching (Am I confident of what I am going to teach?)
Remember: Failing to prepare for teaching, you are preparing to fail teaching.
Implementation of teaching (active phase):
Creating rapport
Introducing teaching/learning objectives
Assessing learners’ prior knowledge
Giving content and major ideas of the session
Implementing the teaching methods.
Assessment and Evaluation of teaching:
Measure the level of acquired skills, attitudes or knowledge (determine the level of achievement of the objectives of teaching and learning) by:Ask one of the learners to summarize
Ask important questions about what has been taught
Administer the assessment tool/test
Score/mark the learners
Giving feedback about performance of the learners
Determine or decide the direction to take basing on their performance
Elements/Components of the Teaching-Learning Process
The teaching-learning process is composed of several key elements:
Learner: Someone who is going to attain knowledge and skills in order to change behavior.
Teacher: Someone who selects and organizes the teaching-learning process.
Learning objectives: Intended learning outcomes which can be observed or measured.
Curriculum and Content: The curriculum outlines the scope and sequence of what will be taught, including the content, topics, and skills to be covered. It serves as a blueprint for educators to structure their lessons and activities.
Teaching Strategies and Environment: These are teaching methods, strategies, and techniques to convey information effectively. These may include lectures, discussions, group work, demonstrations, multimedia presentations, and hands-on activities, among others. Environment is where the teaching-learning process will take place.
Monitoring, assessment and evaluation: It involves finding out whether the set objectives were achieved.
Enthusiastic with content to be taught: A good nursing teacher is excited about nursing and they want to share their knowledge and passion with their students. They use a variety of teaching methods to keep their students engaged and interested in the material.
Organized: A good nursing teacher is organized and efficient. They have a well-planned curriculum and they make sure that their students have the resources they need to succeed.
Good communicator: A good nursing teacher is a clear and concise communicator. They are able to explain complex concepts in a way that their students can understand.
Active listener: A good nursing teacher is an active listener. They pay attention to their students’ questions and concerns, and they provide feedback and support.
Empathy: A good nursing teacher has empathy for their students. They understand the challenges that their students face, and they are supportive and encouraging.
Time manager: A good nursing teacher is a good time manager. They are able to manage their time effectively and they make sure that their students have enough time to learn the material.
Confident: A good nursing teacher is confident in their knowledge and abilities. They are able to answer their students’ questions and they are able to handle difficult situations calmly.
Respectful: A good nursing teacher is respectful of their students. They treat their students with dignity and they create a safe and supportive learning environment.
Counselor: A good nursing teacher is a mentor and counselor to their students. They are able to provide guidance and support to their students as they navigate their nursing education and careers.
Knowledgeable: A good nursing teacher is knowledgeable about the latest nursing practices and research. They are able to provide their students with accurate and up-to-date information.
Good teaching ethics: A good nursing teacher has good teaching ethics. They are committed to providing their students with a high-quality education and they are always striving to improve their teaching skills.
Good leader – lead and guide learners: A good nursing teacher is a good leader. They are able to motivate and inspire their students and they are able to help them achieve their goals.
Teamwork: A good nursing teacher is a team player. They are able to work effectively with other teachers and healthcare professionals.
Creative/innovative: A good nursing teacher is creative and innovative. They are always looking for new and innovative ways to teach their students.
THE SIX MAJOR TASKS OF A TEACHER
These six tasks are essential for teachers to be successful in their profession. By fulfilling these tasks, teachers can help their students learn and grow.
Teachers have six main jobs: (PCPCAC)
To teach students (Plan)
To manage the classroom and keep students on track (Communicate)
To keep learning new things themselves. (Give them resources)
To give guidance and counseling. (Counseling)
To test students to see if they are learning. (Assessment)
To work with other teachers, parents, and administrators to help students succeed and self learn as a teacher. (Continuous Self Education).
Detailed Tasks:
Planning
Decide what students should learn (prepare objectives/tasks)
Put the contents in a suitable sequence
Allocate amount of time and different learning activities.
Select learning activities and teaching methods
Choose assessment procedures
Identify resources needed
Inform the student about the plan
Communications
Tell, explain, advise
Help students to exchange ideas. Students can still learn in your absence
Use varied teaching techniques, Be creative
Providing Resources
Prepare, select or adapt educational materials e.g. handouts, exercises, reference books etc.
Arrange learning experiences, especially opportunities to practice skills (visit the wards, Field visit, attachments to clinical areas & projects etc.)
Arrange access to materials (Such as patients, learning models, libraries, audio visual programs etc)
Counseling
Show students that you care.
Listen and attempt to understand
Help students to identify their options and to make their decisions
Provide advice and information that helps students.
Assessment
Design an assessment that measures how much students have learnt
Use the assessment to guide students learning
Use the assessment to give feedback that modifies teaching.
Use the assessment to decide whether students are competent to provide health care.
Encourage students to use self-assessment and peer-assessment.
Continuous self education
Know the subject matter that is taught and where to find relevant information
Know the way in which health care is provided locally.
Set an example as a continuous learner
LEARNING PROCESS
Types of learning
Learning involves either physical or mental activities. There are different types of learning which could be classified as:
Depending on the way of acquiring knowledge
Formal learning: It occurs in organized or structured form like school or workplace.
Informal learning: This is learning that occurs away from a structured, formal environment. It happens through self-directed learning or experience like observing, field trips, games and other fun activities.
Non-formal learning: It includes various structured learning situations which do not have a curriculum or syllabus e.g. swimming, driving, scouting sessions, debate, etc. It arises from the learner’s conscious decision to master a particular activity, skill or area of knowledge and is thus the result of intentional effort.
Once upon a time, there was a young girl named Sheila who wanted to be a doctor. She loved learning about the human body and how to help people.
Sheila started her journey by learning in a formal setting. She went to medical school, where she studied anatomy, physiology, pharmacology, and other medical subjects. She also spent time in the hospital, where she observed doctors and nurses at work.
In addition to formal learning, Sheila also engaged in informal learning. She read medical books and articles, watched medical documentaries, and talked to doctors and nurses about their experiences.
Sheila also participated in non-formal learning activities. She took a CPR class, volunteered at a local clinic, and attended a medical conference.
Through all of her learning experiences, Alice grew in her knowledge and skills. She became a doctor and was able to help many people.
Here is how Sheila’s story illustrates the different types of learning:
Formal learning: Alice’s medical school education is an example of formal learning. It was a structured program with a curriculum and syllabus.
Informal learning: Alice’s reading, watching medical documentaries, and talking to doctors and nurses are examples of informal learning. She learned from these experiences without being in a formal setting.
Non-formal learning: Alice’s CPR class, volunteering at a local clinic, and attending a medical conference are examples of non-formal learning. These were structured learning activities, but they did not have a curriculum or syllabus.
2. Depending on the number of individuals
Individual learning: Involves self directed training and instructions.
Group learning: Cooperative learning involving groups of people.
Roles of a learner
Attending classes on time
Completing all assignments
Active participation in class and all school activities
Revision or reading on regular basis
Respecting teachers and colleagues
Plan their time
Give feedback to teachers
Maintain discipline in the class
Maintain environment clean and keep school property in good condition
Abide to school rules and regulation
Phases of Learning (MAARRgf)
These are steps involved as learning is taking place.
Motivation phase: The learner must be motivated to learn by expectation that learning will be rewarding. Each learner has their motives and needs in life to achieve.
Apprehending phase: Learner stands or pays attention if learning has to take place. It involves understanding or perceiving what is taught.
Acquisition phase: While the learner is paying attention, there is attainment of new information or behavior.
Retention phase: Newly acquired information must be transferred from short term to long term memory.
Recall phase: Recall previously learned information; to learn to gain access to what has been learned is a critical phase in learning.
Generalization phase: Transfer of information to new situations allows application of the learned information in the context in which it was learned.
Feedback phase: Students must receive feedback on their performance after assessment.
MOTIVATION
Motivation refers to the internal and external factors that drive individuals to take action, set goals, and strive to achieve them.
Motivators are factors or incentives that drive individuals to take action, set and pursue goals, and engage in certain behaviors.
They also refer to forces that account for arousal, selection, and direction of learning.
Motivation Theories
These theories explain the factors that influence human motivation and how they impact learning.
Arousal Theory: Proposes that individuals are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal or alertness. Arousal levels that are too low or too high can decrease motivation. Individuals seek to maintain an optimal balance.
Example: In a classroom, if the material is too easy (low arousal), students may become bored and unmotivated. If it’s too difficult (high arousal), they may feel overwhelmed and demotivated.
Expectancy Theory: Focuses on the relationship between effort, performance, and outcomes. Suggests that individuals are motivated to act in ways that they believe will lead to desired outcomes.
Self-Determination Theory: Emphasizes the importance of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in motivating individuals. Intrinsic motivation is higher when individuals feel they have choices, are competent, and connect with others.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: A psychological theory that arranges human needs in a hierarchy from basic physiological needs to self-actualization needs. Individuals are motivated to fulfill lower-level needs before higher-level ones.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation: These are internal motivators that come from within an individual. They are often related to personal interests, values, and a sense of enjoyment or satisfaction derived from performing a particular task or activity. For example, a person who loves playing the piano may be intrinsically motivated to practice and improve their skills because they find it enjoyable.
Extrinsic Motivation: Extrinsic motivators are external factors that drive behavior. They involve tangible rewards or consequences, such as money, praise, punishment, grades, or recognition. For instance, a student may be extrinsically motivated to study hard to earn good grades and praise from their parents.
WAYS TEACHERS CAN USE TO MOTIVATE LEARNERS
Set Clear Learning Goals: Clearly define the learning objectives at the beginning of a lesson or course. Make sure learners understand what they are expected to achieve. For example, in a nursing class, you might say, “By the end of this lesson, you should be able to demonstrate proper wound care techniques.”
Make Learning Relevant: Show learners how the content relates to their lives or future careers. Use real-world examples to illustrate concepts. For instance, in class, you could explain how understanding cell division is relevant to diagnosing diseases.
Provide Autonomy: Allow learners to have some control over their learning. Offer choices in assignments or projects. In a research project, you might let nursing students choose a healthcare topic of personal interest.
Foster a Positive Learning Environment: Create a classroom or online environment that is inclusive, respectful, and safe. Encourage open discussions and value diverse perspectives. When learners feel comfortable, they are more motivated to participate.
Use Varied Teaching Methods: Employ a mix of teaching strategies to cater to different learning styles. Some learners may thrive in group discussions, while others prefer individual assignments. Offer a variety of activities, such as role-playing, debates, or hands-on simulations in a nursing program.
Offer Constructive Feedback: Provide timely and constructive feedback on learners’ work. Highlight their strengths and provide guidance on areas for improvement. For instance, in an anatomy class, offer feedback on a student’s palpation technique.
Set Challenges and Rewards: Create challenges or goals for learners to strive for, and offer rewards or recognition for achieving them. In a nursing program, you could have a “Student of the Month” award for outstanding clinical skills.
Connect with Real Professionals: Invite guest speakers or arrange field trips to expose learners to professionals in the field. Hearing from experienced nurses, for example, can inspire nursing students.
Use Technology and Multimedia: Incorporate technology, multimedia, and interactive tools into your teaching. For example, use virtual patient simulations or online quizzes to make learning more engaging and interactive.
Encourage Reflection and Self-Assessment: Ask learners to reflect on their learning progress and set personal goals. Encourage them to assess their own strengths and weaknesses. For example bringing back papers they did so that they self assess and reflect why they performed how they performed.
REASONS WHY LEARNERS MAY NOT BE MOTIVATED TO LEARN
Lack of Relevance: If learners don’t see the relevance of the subject matter to their lives or future goals, they may struggle to stay motivated. For instance, a student studying advanced calculus might wonder how it applies to their career aspirations as a graphic designer.
Low Confidence or Self-Efficacy: When learners doubt their ability to succeed, they may become demotivated. For example, a nursing student who has failed previous exams might feel discouraged about upcoming assessments.
Fear of Failure: The fear of making mistakes or failing can be a significant demotivator. Learners may avoid challenges to protect their self-esteem. A student might avoid volunteering to answer questions in class due to the fear of giving the wrong answer.
Lack of Autonomy: When learners have little control over their learning process and choices, they may feel disengaged. For instance, a student in a highly structured and rigid learning environment with no room for self-directed learning may lose motivation.
Monotonous Teaching Methods: If teaching methods are repetitive and lack variety, learners may lose interest. A teacher who exclusively relies on lectures without interactive activities may struggle to keep students engaged.
External Pressure or Overload: Excessive pressure from parents, teachers, or peers can lead to burnout and demotivation. For example, a student overwhelmed by a heavy workload and unrealistic academic expectations may lose enthusiasm for learning.
Lack of Recognition and Feedback: When learners’ efforts and achievements are not acknowledged or rewarded, motivation can wane. For instance, if a student consistently puts in extra effort but receives no recognition or praise from the teacher, they may become disheartened.
WAYS TEACHERS CAN USE TO HELP STUDENT LEARN (ROLES)
Individualize: Allow for individual differences and abilities.
Accept all students as they are, and then start doing good work for them.
Consider students as individuals, engaged in learning on their own.
Vary your teaching.
Try to make sure that each student gets what he/ she needs.
Active learning: Give students some activity to do, e.g. ask questions, set problems, projects, or case studies, etc.
Students learn by doing these activities.
Give feedback; Give frequent, early, positive feedback that supports students’ beliefs that they can do well.
Tell students how well they are doing things,
What was done poorly and how they could have done better in order to correct their mistakes.
Also encourage students to provide their own feedback
Like, how best they need to learn, check their own work for mistakes etc.
Clarity: Make your teaching clear, speak loudly, write neatly, use visual aids and make your teaching meaningful and relevant to the students.
Help students to make sense of what they are learning by showing how it is relevant to them
Ensure mastery: Check that all students know and can do it.
Provide plenty of practice and repetition of what they learn
Tell students what they need to do to succeed in your course.
Don’t let your students struggle to figure out what is expected of them.
Reassure students that they can do well in your course, and tell them exactly what they must do to succeed
Be enthusiastic (love) about your subject.
An instructor’s enthusiasm is a crucial factor in student motivation. If you become bored or apathetic, students will too.
Sequence: Organize what is to be learned so that students find it easy and systematic.
From easy to difficult
From what they know to what they don’t know
Demonstrations: Help students see very clearly what they are trying to learn.
– Use illustrations
Vary your teaching methods.
Variety reawakens students’ involvement in the course and their motivation.
Break the routine by incorporating a variety of teaching activities and methods in your course: ward teaching, role playing, debates, brainstorming, discussion, demonstrations, case studies, audiovisual presentations, or small group work.
Design tests that encourage the kind of learning you want students to achieve.
If you base your tests on memorizing details, students will focus on memorizing facts.
If your tests stress the synthesis and evaluation of information, students will be motivated to practice those skills when they study.
Avoid using grades as threats.
The threat of low grades may prompt some students to work hard, but other students may resort to academic dishonesty, excuses for late work, and other counterproductive behavior.
Motivation: Help to motivate students, to see that they want to learn
Make your teaching interesting, lively, relevant and rewarding
PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING AND LEARNING
The principles of teaching and learning will assist the teacher to achieve the purpose of teaching. It guides the teacher on the elements pertaining teaching such as whom to teach, why teach, where to teach, what to teach, how to teach and when to teach.
Principle of motivation: The best teacher is one who inspires students. This provides an atmosphere of confidence and helps students to develop a positive attitude towards the subject. Example: praise students for their hard work and dedication.
Principle of activity: Teaching should aim at having students active not passive. I would give students opportunities to apply what they have learned to real-world situations. For example, I might have them develop a care plan for a patient, or I might have them create a health education presentation about a health issue.
Principle of individual difference: Teaching should respect individuality of students by considering each student as unique. I would provide extra support to students who are struggling with a particular concept, or I might offer challenging activities to students who are ahead of the class.
Principle of selection: Teachers should select appropriate content, teaching method or aids based on the level and needs of learners. I would use a variety of resources, such as textbooks, articles, websites, and videos, to supplement my lectures and discussions.
Principle of division: Teaching should have definite division into steps and sequenced appropriately e.g. lesson of cardiac failure can be broken down into definition, types, pathophysiology, clinical feature, diagnosis and management. I would break down my lessons into clear and logical steps. This would help students to follow along and to learn the material more effectively.
Principle of correlation or association: The previous knowledge should correlate with present knowledge because our brains were not designed to recall information in isolation e.g. teaching medical or surgical nursing requires knowledge of anatomy or foundations of nursing.
Principle of creativity: Teaching should allow learners to come up with new ideas or suggestions from the content taught. So the teacher should also set activities allowing room for innovation. I might have my students design a new educational tool for patients or use terms they learnt as pickup lines.
Principle of revision and practice: Teaching has to ensure revision or summarizing the content at the end and encourage practice of learned content periodically. I would provide students with opportunities to practice what they have learned through quizzes, assignments, and simulations.
Principle of objectives: Teaching has to have well-defined objectives in order to ease content delivery and evaluation. I would start each class by clearly stating the learning objectives. This would help students to know what they are expected to learn by the end of the class.
Principle of connection to real life: Teaching should relate the content taught to real life so that it maintains the learner’s attention span and understanding. For example, teaching in nursing has to be connected to lived experiences and that of the patient.
QUALITIES/CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TEACHING
Good teaching involves the following:
Recognizes individual differences: It should consider every student as unique.
It should cause learning to take place: It allows change in behavior, i.e., they should be able to do or know something they did not know.
It involves guiding learning: It helps to develop desirable learning habits to achieve a desired aim, i.e., it should have well-defined objectives.
It provides an opportunity for activity: It should keep students as active learners but not passive.
It’s kind and sympathetic: It should make students comfortable in the presence of a teacher but not be threatened.
It should be flexible and use any teaching method to cater to learners’ different learning.
It should reduce the distance between teacher and student hence enhance teamwork.
It’s democratic: The teacher has to allow students to think and express their ideas freely but should remain in control and guide them appropriately.
It should provide desirable and selective information: The teacher should deliver information that is appropriate to the needs and level of students.
It should help the child to adjust to his/her environment: Making a child able to survive and live a productive life in society.
Consider the level of the student: Teaching should be based on the previous knowledge of the student, level of intelligence, and intellectual maturity.
It should be progressive: Teaching should enhance further development of the student to reach good positions in life.
It should be stimulating/motivating: The teacher must elicit the interest of learners with their enthusiasm for the subject, teaching method, and aid used.
It should be planned: The teacher should take prior time to plan and develop well-defined objectives. Otherwise, it implies if one fails to plan, then they plan to fail.
It’s diagnostic and remedial: Teaching should find out educational problems of students then come up with remedial measures to address the problems.
It should be correlated: The present knowledge obtained should relate to the previous content, not distinct.
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