Research Instruments

Research instruments are the specific tools you will utilize to gather data and address your research objectives. They are the means by which you collect the information needed to answer your research questions.

Methods and Instruments Used to Collect Data:

The main approaches for gathering data in research include:

• Interview Method: This involves direct communication between the researcher and the individuals providing information. This can take place in person (face-to-face), through conversations with knowledgeable individuals (key informant interviews), or via remote communication methods such as telephone calls. It is a direct and interactive way to collect in-depth information.

• Questionnaire Method: This is a structured method for data collection that employs a pre-set series of questions. These questions are presented to participants to systematically obtain information in a consistent format. The aim is to gather standardized data from a group of individuals.

• Documentary (Reading Document) Method: This technique involves reviewing and analyzing existing written materials or documents. The purpose is to extract pertinent information and insights relevant to the research topic from these sources.

• Focus Group Discussion: This is a qualitative research approach that brings together a small group of people to discuss specific themes or topics. A moderator guides the discussion to gather a range of perspectives and insights from the group interaction.

• Observation Method: In this research method, the researcher systematically watches and records behaviors, events, or activities in a natural setting. This approach allows for firsthand data collection without directly interacting with participants, offering an unobtrusive way to understand phenomena.

Research (Data Collection) Instruments/Tools:

The primary tools used for data collection in research include:

• Interview Guides: These are structured frameworks of questions or topics designed to guide the conversation during interviews, whether face-to-face or with key informants. They ensure that key areas are covered in a systematic way.

• Self-administered Questionnaires: These are questionnaires designed to be completed by respondents on their own, without the researcher being directly present. They are often distributed in paper form or online and allow participants to answer at their own pace.

• Key Informant Guides: These are structured outlines or lists of questions used specifically when interviewing key informants. These individuals possess specialized knowledge or experience crucial to the research topic, and the guide helps to draw out their expertise.

• Group Discussion Topics: These are specific themes or issues chosen to be explored during a focus group discussion. They serve as prompts to initiate conversation and encourage participants to share diverse viewpoints and engage with each other.

• Observation Checklist/Schedule: This is a structured list or plan used by researchers to systematically observe and record specific behaviors, events, or characteristics. It ensures consistent and focused data collection during observations.

• Library Search: This refers to a systematic and thorough investigation of existing literature and information resources available in libraries. It is a fundamental tool for gathering background information and existing research relevant to a study.

• Tests: These are standardized assessments or examinations designed to measure particular abilities, knowledge levels, or personal attributes of individuals. They are commonly used in educational and psychological research.

• Use of Diary: This data collection method involves participants keeping a regular, chronological record of events, behaviors, or experiences as they happen over a period of time. Diaries provide rich, detailed data about individual experiences and patterns.

The selection of the data collection method is guided by:

Several important factors influence the choice of data collection method:

• Accuracy of Information: This refers to how well the chosen method can ensure that the information gathered is precise, trustworthy, and truthful. The method should be appropriate for obtaining reliable data from participants.

• Practical Considerations: These are real-world limitations such as the time available, the budget and resources at hand, necessary equipment, and the availability of trained personnel. These factors can significantly impact the feasibility and practicality of using a particular data collection method.

• Response Rate of Respondents: This refers to the anticipated level of participation and willingness of the intended participants to engage with the chosen method. A method’s effectiveness depends on getting enough participation to provide representative data.

• Geographical Area Coverage: This considers how efficiently the data collection method can reach and gather information across the intended geographical area of the study. It is important to consider the distribution and accessibility of the target population when selecting a method.

Characteristicsof a Good Research Instrument

A robust research instrument should possess several key qualities:

• Validity and Reliability: The instrument must be valid, meaning it measures what it is intended to measure, and reliable, meaning it produces consistent results over repeated use or with different users.

• Alignment with Conceptual Framework: The instrument should be developed based on the study’s theoretical or conceptual framework, ensuring it measures concepts and variables relevant to the research.

• Relevance to Research Topic: The instrument must be designed to gather data that is directly relevant to the research topic and the specific questions being investigated.

• Hypothesis Testing/Question Answering: The data collected by the instrument should be suitable for testing the research hypotheses or answering the research questions. It needs to provide the necessary information to address the study’s aims.

• Absence of Bias: The instrument should be free from any kind of bias that could skew the results or lead to unfair or inaccurate conclusions. It should be designed to be neutral and objective.

• Clear and Definite Directions: The instrument must include clear, unambiguous instructions for participants or researchers on how to complete or administer it. This ensures consistent application and reduces errors.

• Accompanying Cover Letter: A well-written cover letter should accompany the instrument, introducing the research, explaining its purpose, and encouraging participation. This enhances response rates and ethical conduct.

• Letter of Recommendation (Optional): When appropriate, a letter of support or recommendation from a sponsoring institution or school can add credibility and legitimacy to the research and instrument, potentially increasing participation.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Common Research Instruments/Tools:

Each research instrument has its own strengths and weaknesses.

1. Questionnaire:

Advantages:

• Can be easily distributed to many people across wide geographical areas.

• Respondents have the flexibility to answer the questions at a time that suits them best.

• Data collection can be done relatively quickly, saving research time.

• Provides anonymity, which can encourage respondents to answer sensitive questions more honestly.

• Eliminates potential bias introduced by interviewers.

• Questionnaires are often complex to create effectively, but straightforward for participants to complete.

Disadvantages:

• Not suitable for individuals who cannot read or write.

• There is a risk that respondents may misunderstand questions, leading to inaccurate answers.

• Researchers have no opportunity to probe further or ask follow-up questions for clarification.

• Often suffer from low rates of response, meaning a smaller proportion of distributed questionnaires are returned.

• Researchers cannot observe non-verbal cues, such as facial expressions, which could provide additional context.

• Questionnaires are relatively inflexible in terms of how respondents can approach answering, as they are pre-set.

How to Construct a Questionnaire:

Creating an effective questionnaire involves careful design and structure:

• Keep the questionnaire concise and visually appealing to encourage completion.

• Start with easy, straightforward questions and organize them in a logical order to maintain flow.

• Include the researcher’s contact information and a clear, informative title for the questionnaire.

• Provide an introduction that highlights the study’s importance, assures confidentiality, and gives clear instructions on how to complete it.

• Use simple, easily understandable language and avoid jargon or technical terms.

• Ask specific questions that directly relate to the research objectives to ensure relevant data collection.

• Avoid leading questions that might suggest a desired answer and also avoid double-barreled questions that ask two things at once.

• Place any questions that might be considered sensitive towards the end of the questionnaire, after rapport has been built.

• Incorporate a variety of question types to keep respondents engaged and capture different types of information.

Types of Questions on a Questionnaire:

Questionnaires can include different types of questions:

• i) Open-Ended Questions:

  • Allow respondents to provide detailed, free-form answers in their own words.

  • Help to uncover unique perspectives and unexpected insights from respondents.

  • Generally simpler to create, as they do not require pre-defined answer options.

  • Particularly useful when the range of possible answers is unknown or when exploring complex issues.

  • However, there is a chance of receiving data that is not directly relevant to the research focus.

• ii) Closed Questions:

  • Provide respondents with a specific set of answer choices to select from.

  • Can be more challenging to design well, requiring careful consideration of all possible and relevant options. However, they are easier to administer and analyze quantitatively.

  • Save time for respondents and researcher in terms of answering and processing data.

  • Produce standardized answers that are readily comparable and quantifiable.

  Types of Closed Questions:

  • List Type Questions: Provide a list of options from which respondents can choose one or more.

  • Multiple Choice: Present several options, and respondents select only one best answer.

  • Scale Type: Use a rating scale (e.g., Likert scale) to measure attitudes or opinions on a continuum.

  • Ranking Type: Require respondents to place items in a specific order based on preference or importance.

  • Quantity Type: Ask for numerical answers or amounts.

2. Interview Instrument (Interview Guide/Schedule):

Advantages:

• Typically achieve a higher rate of participation compared to questionnaires, as they are more personal.

• Suitable for populations with low literacy levels, as the researcher reads out and explains questions.

• Allow for probing and follow-up questions to gain deeper understanding and clarification.

• Enable researchers to observe respondent’s non-verbal communication, providing contextual cues.

• Researcher has greater control over the pace and flow of data collection.

• The identity of the respondent is known, which can be important for certain types of research.

• Provide opportunity for building rapport and encouraging more detailed responses through follow-up questions.

Disadvantages:

• Can be more expensive and time-consuming, especially when the population is geographically dispersed.

• Respondents may not always have the time or availability to participate in interviews.

• More susceptible to various forms of interviewer bias, such as leading questions or interviewer effect.

• Offer less anonymity to respondents compared to questionnaires, which may affect honesty on sensitive topics.

• Respondents might give socially desirable answers, rather than their true opinions, to please the interviewer.

• Questions on sensitive or personal topics may make respondents uncomfortable and less forthcoming.

• Locating and contacting respondents for interviews can be challenging, particularly with mobile populations.

Techniques of Interviewing:

Effective interviewing involves specific techniques:

• Establish a positive and comfortable relationship (rapport) with the interviewee.

• Clearly introduce yourself and state the purpose of the interview to set expectations.

• Ask only one question at a time, following the structure of the interview guide to maintain focus.

• Rephrase or repeat questions if necessary to ensure understanding and clarity.

• Allow sufficient time for respondents to formulate and provide thoughtful answers.

• Avoid suggesting possible answers or leading the respondent in any particular direction.

• Maintain a neutral and non-judgmental attitude, especially when discussing potentially controversial issues.

• Use tact and gentle redirection to keep the interview on track and focused on the research objectives.

• Take concise shorthand notes during the interview to capture key points and responses.

• Be adaptable to the respondent’s schedule and availability to facilitate participation.

3. Observation Schedule/Checklist:

Advantages:

• One of the earliest and most fundamental research methods, providing a direct way to study behavior.

• Provides firsthand, reliable information about actual behavior in natural settings.

• Enables systematic coding and recording of behaviors or events as they occur in real-time.

• Offers opportunity to clarify any uncertainties or questions that arise during observation.

• Can achieve a high rate of data collection if the setting and behaviors are readily observable.

• Allows for gathering detailed information using multiple senses beyond just hearing or reading.

Disadvantages:

• There is a risk that participants may alter their behavior if they know they are being observed (reactivity or Hawthorne effect).

• Can be a time-consuming method, especially for long-term or complex observations.

• May be expensive in terms of researcher time and resources needed for systematic observation.

• Limited in scope as it is impossible to directly observe past events or phenomena that have already occurred.

• Subjectivity and potential biases of the observer can influence what is noticed and how it is interpreted.

4. Tests:

• Primarily used in educational research to measure academic achievement levels or intelligence quotient (IQ). They are standardized instruments for assessing specific skills and knowledge.

5. Focus Group Discussion (FGD):

Advantages:

• Effectively gathers a wide range of opinions and perspectives on a topic.

• Allows researchers to collect data from a relatively large number of people in a short amount of time.

• Encourages participants to check and challenge each other’s viewpoints, leading to richer insights.

• Directly involves individuals who are affected by the issues being discussed, ensuring relevance.

• Can be more comfortable for individuals who are hesitant to speak up in larger, more formal settings.

Disadvantages:

• Participants’ identities are not anonymous to each other, which could inhibit open sharing on sensitive topics.

• Can be costly and time-consuming to organize and conduct, including recruitment and moderation.

• Discussing sensitive or personal matters in a group setting may limit the depth and honesty of discussion.

• There is a risk that one or two dominant participants may overly influence the group’s discussion.

• Group dynamics can lead to ‘groupthink’ or socially desirable responses, potentially suppressing dissenting or truly innovative ideas.

6. Telephone Survey:

Advantages:

• Generally achieves a higher response rate than mail surveys, as people are more likely to answer a phone call.

• Data collection is time-efficient compared to face-to-face interviews, allowing for quicker turnaround.

• Eliminates potential interviewer bias associated with in-person interactions as there are no visual cues.

• Can cover a broader geographical area relatively easily and cost-effectively compared to in-person methods.

• Offers a degree of comfort and psychological distance for respondents who might be shy or uncomfortable in person.

• Cost-effective and convenient compared to face-to-face interviews, reducing travel and logistical costs.

• Allows for probing and follow-up questions during the conversation, similar to in-person interviews.

Disadvantages:

• Excludes individuals who do not have access to telephones or who primarily use mobile phones without listed numbers.

• Obtaining accurate and up-to-date phone numbers for the target population can be challenging.

• Data quality can be affected by human factors like misunderstandings or respondent distractions on the phone.

7. Mail Survey:

• Involves sending questionnaires to respondents through postal mail.

• Particularly useful for studies covering geographically dispersed populations.

• For the advantages and disadvantages of mail surveys, refer to those listed for questionnaires, as they are essentially the same instrument but delivered by mail.

8. Diary Method:

• Involves participants recording events, activities, or experiences in a diary or journal over a period of time.

• Provides valuable, detailed data about individual routines, work patterns, or experiences as they unfold naturally.